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This article reviews the use of non-human animals in biomedical research from a historical viewpoint, providing an insight into the most relevant social and moral issues on this topic across time, as well as to how the current paradigm for ethically ...
- Introduction
- Ancient Pharmaceutical Development and Animal Experimentation
- 20th Century Transformations in Pharmaceutical Development
- Regulatory Toxicology
- Target-Directed Drug Discovery and Molecular Pharmacology
- Summary and Conclusions
- Acknowledgments
Human discovery, development, and use of pharmacologically active substances (pharmaceutical development) is arguably the oldest of the biomedical sciences with origins >3500 years ago. In the 20th century CE four major transformations have dramatically impacted pharmaceutical development, each driven by advances in scientific knowledge, technology...
The Ebers Papyrus (1536 BCE) describes over 800 treatments for aliments afflicting ancient Egyptians prepared from herbs, shrubs, leaves, minerals, and animal components, and including hemlock, aconite, opium, arsenic, and snake venoms (Gallo 2013; Jones 2011; Sanchez and Harer 2014). Similar records have been recovered from ancient Mesopotamian, G...
Anesthesia, Analgesia, and Antisepsis
During the 19th century three discoveries combined to enable sparing humans and animals pain and distress, associated with dissection, surgery, infection, and inflammation, and also to the foundation for modern research animal welfare (e.g., Russell and Birch's 3Rs): (1) discovery and use of ether, chloroform, and later intravenous barbiturates and analgesics to produce surgical anesthesia, analgesia, and amnesia; (2) establishment of causal relationships between specific pathogenic organisms...
Medicinal Chemistry and Recombinant DNA Technologies
New knowledge and technology for isolation of individual chemicals from mixtures, identification of chemical structures, and organic chemical synthesis, and deciphering the genetic code and recombinant DNA technologies coalesced for a second “transformation” in 20th-century pharmaceutical development. The transformation from nature-sourced formulations to synthetic small molecule drugs began with chloral hydrate, discovered in 1832 by chlorination of ethanol and introduced in 1869 as a sedati...
Government regulation leading to routine prospective safety evaluation of new pharmaceuticals marked a third transformation in pharmaceutical development occurring in the 20th century. Regulation in pharmaceutical development has ancient origins. Responding to poisons, poisoners, and political assassinations, the Roman Senate began strict regulatio...
Until the mid-20th century, efficacy and safety testing of new drugs were based upon animal and human bioassay study designs using phenomenological endpoints, for example, blood pressure lowering, diuresis, prevention of electroshock-induced seizure, etc. (efficacy); and morbidity/mortality, clinical observations, morphology/histopathology, etc. (s...
Animal experimentation has been amongst the clusters of advances for all but the most recent transformations, and if that trend is continued we predict that further transformations in pharmaceutical development will likely result in substantial reductions in regulatory toxicology testing and perhaps eliminate nonclinical efficacy testing for future...
The editors acknowledge and thank the International Consortium for Innovation and Quality in Pharmaceutical Development (IQ Consortium) for recommendations of lead and co-authors for manuscripts published in this issue of the ILAR Journal.
- Lewis B. Kinter, Joseph J. DeGeorge
- 2016
There are several reasons why the use of animals is critical for biomedical research: • Animals are biologically very similar to humans. In fact, mice share more than 98% DNA with us! • Animals are susceptible to many of the same health problems as humans – cancer, diabetes, heart disease, etc.
Jun 25, 2021 · Animals used in scientific research and product development during the 20th century were predominantly normal or spontaneous mutants (eg, genetically hypertensive rats, immunodeficient mice) and used in primary physiological, pharmacological, and toxicological animal and animal tissue bioassays.
Discover the historical timeline of DNA, starting with Charles Darwin in the 1800s through to the current developments and future of DNA.
Apr 7, 2020 · In this Review, the authors provide an overview of how ancient DNA has informed our understanding of the domestication of various animal species, including dogs, pigs, cattle, goats and...
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Feb 3, 2014 · Other tests were also developed directly from DNA fingerprinting methods, including assays for sex testing (Figure 2B) and assays for forensic wildlife services to control animal smuggling and illegal trade of endangered species [12, 13].
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