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1. • • The light that is reflected by the surface is largely unmodulated by pigments, whereas light that is reflected by the petal interior or transmitted through the flower will be modulated by pigments inside the flower (for visualization purposes the light rays inside the flower are shown in grey).
     www.researchgate.net/figure/Diagram-of-light-reflection-in-a-flower-Part-of-the-incident-light-I-is-reflected-by_fig1_326301773

     Diagram of light reflection in a flower. Part of the incident ...

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   How do we separate the light reflected by the flower surface?

   • To separate the light reflected by the flower surface from the light backscattered by the components inside (e.g. the vacuoles), we also investigated surface casts. A survey among angiosperms revealed three different types of floral surface structure, each with distinct reflections.

   Iridescent flowers? Contribution of surface structures to optical

   nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.12808

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   How does light reflect on a flower?

   • In almost all plant species, for near perpendicular illumination the surface reflectance is very small (<5 %) and the visual signal thus is largely due to diffuse light reflection by the scattering structures inside the flower (Kay et al., 1981; Kevan and Backhaus, 1998; Lee, 2007; van der Kooi et al., 2014; Stavenga and van der Kooi, 2016).

   Functional significance of the optical properties of flowers for

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   Do flowers have a reflectance spectrum?

   • Accordingly, for numerous flowers the coloration, characterized by their reflectance spectrum, has been reported (e.g. [6 – 10]), but the optics, i.e. the complex interaction of light with the inner components of flowers, has so far received much less attention.

   How to colour a flower: on the optical principles of flower coloration

   royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2016.0429

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   How much light does a flower reflect?

   • Flowers reflect between 20 % and 50 % of the incident light, which suggests that a reflectance in this range is sufficient for strong visual signalling to pollinators (van der Kooi et al., 2016 a). In other words, a 20 % light reflectance allows for a sufficient overall contrast with the average leaf background.

   Functional significance of the optical properties of flowers for

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   What determines a flower's color and saturation?

   • The reflected light in the wavelength ranges complementary to the pigment's absorption band determines the flower's hue and saturation. Backscattering of light occurs at the irregularly structured inner petal components (e.g. the vacuoles and air spaces; figure 1).

   How to colour a flower: on the optical principles of flower coloration

   royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2016.0429

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   Which part of the light is reflected by a flat surface?

   • Part of the light is reflected by the flat surface, but reflections and refractions inside the petal at the boundaries of the irregularly arranged petal cell components result in diffusely scattered light. (b) Diagram showing a Ranunculus ficaria flower petal of which a small area is illuminated with a narrow-aperture white-light beam.

   Iridescent flowers? Contribution of surface structures to optical

   nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.12808

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4. royalsocietypublishing.org › doi › 10How to colour a flower: on the optical principles of flower ...

   royalsocietypublishing.org › doi › 10

   May 11, 2016 · The reflected light in the wavelength ranges complementary to the pigment's absorption band determines the flower's hue and saturation. Backscattering of light occurs at the irregularly structured inner petal components (e.g. the vacuoles and air spaces; figure 1 ).

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     In this study, we illustrate and quantify different aspects...

5. academic.oup.com › aob › articleFunctional significance of the optical properties of flowers ...

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   Jul 4, 2018 · Apart from pigments that selectively absorb light at specific wavelength ranges, three main characteristics determine a flower’s reflectance: the refractive index difference between floral structures, the flower’s interior inhomogeneity and the flower’s thickness.

   • Author: Casper J van der Kooi, Adrian G Dyer, Peter G Kevan, Klaus Lunau

   • Publish Year: 2019

6. www.bbc.co.uk › bitesize › guidesReflection of light - Light waves - Edexcel - GCSE Physics ...

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   Light waves - Edexcel. All waves will reflect and refract in the right circumstances. The reflection and refraction of light explains how people see images, colour and even optical illusions....

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8. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › pmc › articlesHow to colour a flower: on the optical principles of flower ...

   www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › pmc › articles

   May 5, 2016 · The light that is not reflected or absorbed is transmitted ( T) through the abaxial side (ab) of the petal. In this study, we illustrate and quantify different aspects of flower coloration with the aim of determining the common optical principles of flower coloration.

   • Author: Casper J. van der Kooi, J. Theo M. Elzenga, Marten Staal, Doekele G. Stavenga
   • DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.0429

   • Publish Year: 2016
   • Published: 2016/05/05

9. www.sciencelearn.org.nz › 48-reflection-of-lightReflection of light — Science Learning Hub

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   Light reflects from a smooth surface at the same angle as it hits the surface. For a smooth surface, reflected light rays travel in the same direction. This is called specular reflection. For a rough surface, reflected light rays scatter in all directions. This is called diffuse reflection.

10. www.researchgate.net › figure › Diagram-of-lightDiagram of light reflection in a flower. Part of the incident ...

    www.researchgate.net › figure › Diagram-of-light

    The light that is reflected by the surface is largely unmodulated by pigments, whereas light that is reflected by the petal interior or transmitted through the flower will be modulated by...

11. nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com › doi › fullIridescent flowers? Contribution of surface structures to ...

    nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com › doi › full

    Apr 9, 2014 · To separate the light reflected by the flower surface from the light backscattered by the components inside (e.g. the vacuoles), we also investigated surface casts. A survey among angiosperms revealed three different types of floral surface structure, each with distinct reflections.