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The goal of this course, then, is to stop taking programming languages for granted; to go deeper, from users of programming languages to understanding the design and implementation of these languages.
Critical thinking about programming languages.? What is a programming language!? Study programming languages. Be familiar with basic language concepts. Appreciate trade-offs in language design. Trace history, appreciate evolution and diversity of ideas. Be prepared for new programming methods, paradigms. 7
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This text will focus on introducing high-level programming languages in imperative, object-oriented, functional, and logic paradigms. The first high-level programming language can be traced to Konrad Zuse’s Plankalkül programming system in Germany in 1946. Zuse developed his Z-machines Z1, Z2, Z3, and Z4 in the late 1930s and early 1940s,
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- Introduction
- The FbDK
- Background Needed
- 2.1 A First Look at Operational Semantics
- 2.2 BNF grammars and Syntax
- j hform ni
- S ::= b j Sa
- S a
- 2.2.1 Operational Semantics for Logic Expressions
- True j False
- Red(x) Shiny(x)
- True And False ) False
- (Value Rule) v ) v
- False ) False True ) True True ) True False And True ) False True And (False And True) ) False
- 2.2.2 Abstract Syntax
- (True And False) Implies ((Not True) And False)
- true
- J e2K )
- True Or True And False
- True Or (True And False)
- The algorithm must have as its input a
- j Function x ! e
- j Let x = e In e
- j Let Rec f x = e In e recursive let expression
- 2.3.2 Variable Substitution
- Bound and Free Occurrences of Variables
- 2.3.3 Operational Semantics for F[
- F[ Recursion
- (= Rule)
- 2.3.4 The Expressiveness of F[
- Let Expressions
- Let x = e1 In e2 = (Function x -> e2) e1
- Freezing and Thawing
- Thaw e = e 0
- Let x = Freeze (2 + 3) In (Thaw x) + (Thaw x)
- 2.3.5 Russell's Paradox and Encoding Recursion
- i S 2 e P e ) True
- (Function x -> Not(x x)) (Function x -> Not(x x))?
- P P ) False.
- Constructing the Y-combinator
- Another route to Y: Encoding Recursion by Passing Self
- (Function x -> Not (x x)) (Function x -> Not (x x))
- (Function x -> F (x x)) (Function x -> F (x x))
- Function froF -> True
- F' = Function fs -> Function n -> If n = 0 Then 0 Else n + fs (n - 1)
- 2.3.7 F[ Abstract Syntax
- 2.4 Operational Equivalence
- Thaw (Freeze e) = e
- 2.4.2 Properties of Operational Equivalence
- If e ) v then e = v
- 2.4.3 Examples of Operational Equivalence
- Tuples, Records, and Variants
- Function x -> x.weight:
- 3.2.2 The F[R Language
- 3.3 Variants
- 3.3.1 Variant Polymorphism
- e.lk = e `lk(0)
- Side E ects: State and Exceptions
- 4.1 State
- 4.1.1 The F[S Language
- F[S Interpreters
- 4.1.2 Cyclical Stores
- 4.1.3 The \Normal" Kind of State
- | Get of expr | Set of ident * expr | Ref of expr
- 4.1.4 Automatic Garbage Collection
- 4.2 Environment-Based Interpreters
- (Function x -> x x x)(whopping expr)
- 4.3.2 Merge Sort
- 4.4 Exceptions and Other Control Operations
- 4.4.1 Interpreting Return
- (Return (4 + 4)) - 8:
- Return e ) Return v
- e - e0 ) Return v0
- Return (4 + 4) - 8 ) Return 8:
- Return e ) Return v
- Raise #xn v;
- Try e With #xn x -> e0
- Function x -> Try (If x = 0 Then 5 Else Raise #Return (4 + x)) - 8 With #Return n -> n) 4
- 4.4.3 Implementing the F[X Interpreter
- Try e With #xn x -> e0 ) v0
- Function x -> Try (If x = 0 Then 5 Else Raise #Return (4 + x)) - 8 With #Return n -> n) 4
- Ob ject-Oriented Language Features
- 5.1 Encoding Objects in F[SR
- g In : : :
- Let tallerThan = Function person1 -> Function person2 -> greatereq (person1 <- height) (person2 <- height)
- 5.1.3 Information Hiding
- g In : : :
- g In pointInterface.sneaky fg
- In Let point = prePoint prePoint In : : :
- 5.1.4 Classes
- g In : : :
- Let point1 = pointClass fg In Let point2 = pointClass fg In point1 <- setx 5 : : :
- 5.1.5 Inheritance
- g In . . .
- 5.1.6 Dynamic Dispatch
- Let p = pointClass fg In Let cp = colorPointClass fg In p <- isNull fg; cp <- isNull fg;
- 5.1.7 Static Fields and Methods
- Let point = (pointClass.new) pointClass fg In (point.magnitude) point fg
- 5.2 The F[OB Language
- 5.2.2 A Direct Interpreter
- 3 + (If False Then 3 Else False);
- 6.1 An Overview of Types
- Point.
- 6.2 TF[: A Typed F[ Variation
- 6.2.1 Design Issues
- (Function x -> (x:int + 1:int):int):(int -> int):
- 6.2.2 The TF[ Language
- ::= Int | Bool | -> :
- The TF[ Type Rules
- ` If e Then e0 Else e00 :
- 6.3 Type Checking
- 6.4 Types for an Advanced Language: TF[SRX
- i n
- If b Then Raise (#IntExn 1) Else Raise (#BoolExn False)
- If b Then Raise (#Exn True) Else 4
- Try Raise (#Ex 5) With #Ex x:Int -> x + 1
- Try Raise (#Ex False) With #Ex x:Int -> x + 1
- Try Raise (#Ex@Bool False) With #Ex@Int x -> x + 1
- 6.5 Subtyping
- 6.5.1 Motivation
- Function x:fl:Intg -> (x.l + 1):Int:
- G = Function r -> r.x + r.x:
- 6.5.4 Subtyping in Other Languages
- 6.6 Type Inference and Polymorphism
- 6.6.2 An Equational Type System: EF[
- ::= Int j Bool j ->
- Int -> 'anf'a = Int -> 'a1; 'a1 = Boolg
- Int -> Int -> Bool:
- Int -> 'anf'a = Int -> 'b; 'a = Boolg
- Int -> 'anf'a = Int -> 'a g
- The EF[ Type Rules
- Int -> 'anf'a = Int -> 'ag:
- 6.6.3 PEF[: EF[ with Let Polymorphism
- Let x = Function y -> y In (x True); (x 0)
- 6.7 Constrained Type Inference
- Concurrency
- 7.1 Overview
- 7.1.1 The Java Concurrency Model
- 7.2 The Actor Model and AF[V
- 7.2.1 Syntax of AF[V
- 7.2.3 Operational Semantics of Actors
- G ::= [ f[a
- G1 ! G2 ! G3 ! : : :
- 7.2.4 The Local Rules
- 7.2.5 The Global Rule
- S v0]g [ fha; vig) ! (G [ fha; v00ig [ S) if (v v0 =) v00)
- 7.2.6 The Atomicity of Actors
- Compilation by Program Transformation
- 8.1 Closure Conversion
- (Function y -> x + y, f x |-> 3 g)
- e and atrans(e) both either compute to
- 8.3 Function Hoisting
- 8.4 Translation to C
- 8.4.1 Memory Layout
- (Function x -> x.l)(If y = 0 Then fl = 3g Else fa = 4; l = 3g)
- Refs.
- 8.4.2 The toC translation
- 8.4.3 Compilation to Assembly code
- 8.5 Summary
- 8.7 Garbage Collection
In this book, our goal is to study the fundamental concepts in programming languages, as opposed to learning a range of speci c languages. Languages are easy to learn, it is the concepts behind them that are di cult. The basic features we study in turn in-clude higher-order functions, data structures in the form of records and variants, mutable sta...
Complementing the book is the F[ Development Kit, FbDK. It is a set of OCaml utilities and interpreters for designing and experimenting with the toy F[ and F[SR languages de ned in the book. It is available from the book homepage at http://pl.cs.jhu.edu/ pl/book. 1
The book assumes familiarity with the basics of OCaml, including the module system (but not the objects, the \O" in OCaml). Beyond that there is no absolute prerequisite, but knowledge of C, C++, and Java is helpful because many of the topics in this book are implemented in these languages. The compiler presented in chapter 8 produces C code as its...
The syntax of a programming language is the set of rules governing the formation of expressions in the language. The semantics of a programming language is the meaning of those expressions. There are several forms of language semantics. Axiomatic semantics is a set of ax-iomatic truths in a programming language. Denotational semantics involves mode...
Before getting into meaning we need to take a step back and rst precisely de ne language syntax. This is done with formal grammars. Backus-Naur Form (BNF) is a standard grammar formalism for de ning language syntax. You could well be familiar with BNF since it is often taught in introductory courses, but if not we provide a brief overview. All BNF ...
where each \form" above describes a particular language form { that is, a string of terminals and non-terminals. A term in the language is a string of terminals which matches the description of one of these rules (traditionally the rst). For example, consider the language Sheep. Let fSg be the set of nonterminals, fa; bg be the set of terminals, an...
Note that this is a recursive de nition. Examples of terms in Sheep are b; ba; baa; baaa; baaaa; : : : That is, any string starting with the character b and followed by zero or more a characters is a term in Sheep. The following are examples that are not terms in SHEEP: a: Terms in Sheep must start with a b. bbaaa: Sheep does not allow multiple b c...
The above syntax diagram describes all terms of the Sheep language. To generate a form of S, one starts at the left side of the diagram and moves until one reaches the right. The rectangular nodes represent non-terminals while the rounded nodes represent terminals. Upon reaching a non-terminal node, one must construct a term using that non-terminal...
In order to get a feel for what an operational semantics is and how it is de ned, we will now examine the operational semantics for a very simple language: propositional boolean logic with no variables. The syntax of this language is as follows. An expression e is recursively de ned to consist of the values True and False, and the expressions e And...
values The following is an equivalent syntax diagram: v
Note that the syntax above breaks tradition somewhat by using lower-case letters for non-terminals. Terminals are printed in xed-width font. The rationale for this is consistency with the metavariables we will be using in operational semantics below and will become clear shortly. We can now discuss the operational semantics of the boolean language....
Apple(x) indicates that if a thing is red and shiny, then that thing is an apple. This is, of course, not true; many red, shiny things exist which are not apples. Nonetheless, it is a valid logical statement. In our work, we will be de ning logical rules pertaining to a programming language; as a result, we have control over the space in which the ...
This rule indicates that the boolean language code True And False evaluates to False. The absence of any preconditions above the line means that no conditions must be met; this operational semantics rule is always true. Rules with nothing above the line are termed axioms since they have no preconditions and so the conclusion always holds. As a rule...
The value rule above is an axiom declaring that any value always evaluates to itself. This satis es our requirement and allows us to make use of the And rule. Using this formal logic approach, we can now prove that True And (False And True) ) False as follows:
One may read the above proof tree as an explanation as to why True And (False And True) evaluates to False. We can choose to read that proof as follows: \True And (False And True) evaluates to False by the And rule because we know True evaluates to True, that False And True evaluates to False, and that the logical and of true and false is false. We...
Our operational semantics rules have expressed the evaluation relation in terms of con-crete syntax using metavariables. Operators, such as the in x operator And, have ap-peared in textual format. This is a good representation for humans to read because it appeals to our intuition; it is not, however, an ideal computational representation. We read ...
Abstract: Implies( And(True,False) , And(Not(True),False) ) True False Implies And And Not False
There is a simple and direct relationship between the concrete syntax of a language and the abstract syntax. As mentioned above, the abstract syntax is a form which more directly represents the operations being performed whereas the concrete syntax is the form in which the operations are actually expressed. Part of the process of compiling or inter...
For example, this relation indicates the following: J (True And False) Implies ((Not True) And False) = Implies( K True And False, (Not True) And False )
Abstract: And(Or(True,True),False) And Or False True True
Abstract: Or(True,And(True,False)) Or True And True False True ) True False ) False
• nite number of arguments. The algorithm must consist of a nite number of steps. If the algorithm is given arguments for which the function is de ned, it must produce the correct answer within a nite amount of time. If the algorithm is given arguments for which the function is not de ned, it must either produce a clear error or otherwise not termi...
v j (e) lower-case letters capital letters lower-case letters digits other characters variable values boolean values integer values function values value expressions parenthesized expressions j e And e j e Or e j Not e boolean expressions
application expression conditional expressions let expression
Note that in accordance with the above BNF, we will be using metavariables e, v, and x to represent expressions, values, and variables respectively. Note the last point: the metavariable x refers to an arbitrary F[ variable, not necessarily to the F[ variable x. Associativity in F[ works in a fashion very similar to OCaml. Function application, for...
The main feature of F[ is higher-order functions, which also introduces variables. Recall that programs are computed by rewriting them:
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
Our compiled code mallocs but never frees. We will eventually run out of memory. A garbage collector is needed. De nition: In a run-time image, memory location n is garbage if it never will be read or written to again. There are many notions of garbage detection. The most common is to be somewhat more conservative and take garbage to be memory loca...
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1. 1 Reasons for Studying Concepts of Programming Languages- CO1 x Increased ability to express ideas x Improved background for choosing appropriate languages
1.1 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES Programming languages are the medium of expression in the art of computer pro-gramming. An ideal programming language will make it easy for programmers to write programs succinctly and clearly. Because programs are meant to be under-stood, modified, and maintained over their lifetime, a good programming language
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What is a Programming Language? A programming language is a notation that a person and a computer can both understand. • It allows you to express what is the task to compute • It allows a computer to execute the computation task 2
